Intelligence Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Intelligence Studies - Essay Example territories that a government runs and have a permanent population.3 Nation-states are the most important actors in the international relations, but non-states actors strongly influence them. Hence, nation-states actors are entities or organizations, which a government runs.4 Some of the state actors include elected leaders, diplomats, bureaucrats, militaries among others. Non-state actors have a responsibility of checking state parties in all their actions. For instance, non-state actors such as NGOs which comprises of civil societies scrutinizes government policies to make sure they comply with provisions of human rights. Similarly, these non-state actors play the role of influencing policies and pressurizing the government to implement policies towards meeting its agenda.5 This is contrary to the role of the government, which has a role in making national policies and executing them for the benefit of the people.6 The two actors are different because of the role they play for the people. In the past decades, different civil societies have echoed their voices on the actions of state actors to influence change. For instance, civil societies echoed their voices when the death toll was rising in Egypt. As much as the Egyptian government was condoning and comfortable with the developments, non-state actors comprising on international civil societies opp osed the actions. This is an indication of the differences between the two actors. State actors have their media that influences and pass information regarding developments as well as the activities of the nations. This is normally biased, as various governments do not want to expose the wrongs to the public or in the international area. Therefore, most of the wrongdoing of the government goes unreported. Nearly every country has its national broadcasting, which the government influences to get favor. On the other hand, non-states actors such as media expose the nations concerning their wrong doings. They have

Contract Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 5

Contract Law - Essay Example In the case of Bell,3 the court ascertained that in the event of an occurrence of common mistakes that undermines the subject of the agreement it renders that contract void. The law recognizes three types of common mistakes namely, res extincta, res sua and mistake on the basis of quality and personality of the subject matter of the contract. Res axtincta is a common mistake where the parties enter into a contract to acquire something that does that both parties are unaware of its non-existence.4 res sua is a common mistake where one party forms an agreement with the other to acquire the interest in something already that party has, but without the knowledge of either party. Finally, a common mistake on the basis of quality is where the parties form an agreement to perform something different from what they thought it was.5 A common mistake can limit the parties to the contract from reaching an agreement because the parties are incapable of establishing corresponding offer and acceptance on an essential issue of the agreement.6 Also, even when parties have reached an agreement, there is a shared mistake in relation to the associated circumstance. Under the English Common law, the common mistakes might undermine the contract by rendering it completely void.7 However, unless the issues are serious it might not be necessary for the parties to seek legal intervention, even though, the parties could not have entered into the agreement had they known the true position at the time they were forming the contract.8 Equitable jurisdiction refers to a structure of integrity considered to enhance the common law by taking action in an equitable and rational manner that results in just outcome.9 Under equitable jurisdiction, the parties to the contract are prohibited from enforcing their legal rights in case it was unacceptable for them to do so. The essence of equitable jurisdiction is to ensure no party takes

Rubbish Has No Value Essay Example for Free

Rubbish Has No Value Essay †¢ Introduction, explaining what rubbish is? Explaining what assignment is about. †¢ One wastefulness and affluence, how this affects rubbish, consumer society †¢ Two Thompsons Theory, recycling (one man’s trash is another man’s treasure), Jordan’s Junk art. †¢ Three – Stevegraphs/supply Demand †¢ Four – environment and rubbish †¢ Conclusion, do not introduce any new material!! Sum essay up. Remember word count and references. ‘Rubbish has no value’. Identify the arguments for and against this view. It can be argued that rubbish is a thing that has no worth; it is what nobody wants, it is disvalued, so it is worthless and has zero value (Brown, 2009, p105). ‘Value’ can be a complex term. Items have value because people value them. What is rubbish to one person may have value to another. Rubbish is seems can be quite contradictory! Throughout this essay it will be argued whether rubbish does in fact have no value. Your immediate thoughts on rubbish might be something straight forward like an empty crisp packet, you have eaten the crisps inside so now the packet is surplus to requirements and has no more use; it is now rubbish has no value and will be disposed of. But rubbish covers more than just this. There is also wasting, uneaten food is wasted, televisions left on standby is wasted electricity. Rubbish is the invisible part of consumption, the growth of mass consumption due to rising affluence and prosperity has contributed to the increase of rubbished produced. The rise in disposable income has allowed us to buy goods easier than ever before, this in turn has caused a huge rise in the manufacturing of consumer goods. We are living in a consumer society, it is now cheaper to replace goods rather than repair, and we have become a throwaway society. In 1983/84 the amount of household rubbish per person was 397 kg, in 2006/07 this increased to 508kg (Brown, 2009, p107). With this rise, the amount of rubbish we produce as a nation, for example packaging, outdated and broken items. These discarded items may no longer hold value to us as an individual but provides a lucrative business for the waste disposals business and recycling plants. It is not just household rubbish that is a problem, rubbish from shops; businesses supermarkets, manufacture, construction and agriculture cause a greater proportion of rubbish (Brown, 2009, p134) Michael Thompson wrote a book ‘Rubbish Theory: The Creation and Destruction of Value’. He categorises objects into three: †¢ Transient objects which are planned for ordinary use and their value fall over time for example clothing and mobile phones †¢ Rubbish which is items like worn out clothes obsolete phones, these items has zero value. †¢ Durable items are items where the value increases over time, such as works of art and jewellery. (Brown 2009, p122) Objects are produced for either transient or durable categories, items can move from transient into durable via the category of rubbish and are then revalued. Items lose and then gain value. An example of this would be Stevengraphs, silk woven pictures popular in 1828-88, many were made and sold but by the middle of the twentieth century they had become unsalable. It was during the 1960’s and 1970; s they were again being sold and as collectors’ items for vast amounts of money thus making them now an item of value. Their increase in value can be attributed to their aesthetic revaluation. The aesthetic judgement of the few caused the Stevengraphs to be revalued. Consequently there are items that can only be described as rubbish with no value which will end up at land fill. Other items start life with value but over time due to the changing fashions and improvements in technology they lose value and there are items that start life with a relative normal value lose their value and then increase value. The value of items can also rise or fall according to supply and demand, †¢ Price rises when demand increases relative to supply. †¢ Price falls when demand fall relative to supply. (Brown, 2009, p128) With regard to the Stevengraphs, their price fell due to lack of demand, the price or value increased years later due to a new demand for them. Other examples of items moving from the transient to durable category are vintage toys, at the time of production they would have been priced according to demand, then becoming surplus to requirements and having no value, years later the lack of supply or now supply as no longer produced along with an increase in interest would again give them value. Aesthetic and economic valuations are inevitably linked to some degree, and this tends to hold generally (Brown, 2009, p131) another form with aesthetic value which can also be described as rubbish is junk art. This type of art uses discarded objects which most would describe as rubbish in such a way they then become art. Chris Jordan makes photographic artworks that are computer-assembled from smaller photographs, these photographs are shots of mass consumption, plastic cups tin cans plastic bags cigarette ends (Brown, 2009, p131) – this is transforming rubbish into art. Using rubbish as art can be described as a form of recycling, what was once rubbish is now art? This also shows that the old saying of ‘one man’s rubbish is another man’s treasure’ still holds true today. Recycling is a relatively new initiative for households, a few years back everything we no longer required went into one bin which was then collected and dumped at a land fill. Now we separate plastic, cardboard, food waste, tins and glass. These items are recycled and used or made into many different things such as new cardboard, fertilizer. This is giving new value to items that were once thought of as rubbish. The UK has come a long way with recycling but we are still lagging behind the rest of Europe. The financial value of rubbish may change, to those in the rubbish collection and recycling business dealing with rubbish provides employment and income thus giving value to rubbish. The downside to this is the cost to each nation, the disposal of rubbish has to be paid for. Aside from the financial side to rubbish the environmental side needs to be considered. Rubbish can either go into landfill or be incinerated, this in turn causes pollution, complete disposal is hard to achieve. Consideration is needed towards our environment, if as a nation we continue to increase with mass consumption there will continue to be an increase in rubbished produced. The environment will not be able to sustain this. Global consideration is needed for future generations. In conclusion it would appear that rubbish does and does not have value. Our first impression of unwanted/discarded items would be they are rubbish and are sent to land fill thus having no value. However using junk art and recycling as examples it is clear that certain type of rubbish can have value. Items from household rubbish are recycled into new items. Other items that one might believe to be rubbish can be interpreted as art, bringing value to rubbish. For those in rubbish disposal, rubbish has financial value, but the cost to society and the environment show the negative financial value of rubbish. Items can change from having little or no value to items of collectable status with immense value. So in essence rubbish can have both, value and no value depending on the situation it is in.

Pros And Cons Of The Cruise Industry

Pros And Cons Of The Cruise Industry It is important to appreciate the size and scope of the cruise industry before discussing the issues and challenges associated with it. This paper provides an overview of the cruise industry, key players, growth, recent trends and developments and informs on the key impacts and effects that this fast growing cruise industry has on its destinations, communities, the waterways, passengers and the environment., It further analyzes the economic, social, cultural, health, safety, environment and taxation attributes of the cruise business and discusses both the positive and as well as the negative aspects of cruise tourism. The cruise industry provides economic and other benefits to the destinations, from the tourists expenditures and ships operational purchases to the taxation benefits for the communities in those destinations. It gives satisfaction and relaxation to the cruise passengers which results in profits for the cruise companies. At the same time, there are many negatives and a n umber of which are significant and seriously damaging to those same destinations, communities and the environment. This paper will as well provide a balanced snapshot of the industry and highlight several key concerns and provide recommendations towards reducing their negative impact and with a future of more controlled and sustainable cruise operations. It should be noted that there is not one single cure-it-all solution to what is a very complex problem, but it is believed that more assertive international policies and legislations that can be enforced are a big part of the answer. Cruise Industry Overview The cruise ship industry is the fastest growing segment in the travel industry and has had an annual growth rate of 8.0% since 1980. Just imagine about 339 active cruise ships with well over 10.9 million gross tons and about 296,000 beds.  [1]  In 2007, the worldwide cruise passengers grew to 12.9 million. According to the Cruise Industry Report 2012 by the Florida Caribbean Cruise Association  [2]  , the 2011 passenger number was over 16 million, of which 11.2 million originated in North America. The forecasted numbers for 2012 forecast was 17.0 million worldwide, with the preferred destination being the Caribbean. The cruise lines continue to add new ships and exciting options to ensure continued growth. Todays ships offer a new generation of dizzying onboard innovations, including surf pools, planetariums, on-deck LED movie screens, golf simulators, water parks, self-leveling billiard tables, multi-room villas with private pools and in-suite Jacuzzis, ice skating rinks, ro ck climbing walls, bungees and trampolines. With all of this luxury and increase in passengers numbers, the impact and the challenges in such areas as economic, socio-cultural, environmental, safety and security and taxation are a major concern. Economic Effects These economic benefits arise from five principal sources: 1) spending by cruise passengers and crew; 2) the shore-side staffing for their local offices, marketing and tour operations 3) expenditures for goods and services necessary for cruise operations; 4) spending by the cruise lines for port services; and 5) expenditures for the maintenance. According to CLIA, the economic impact of the U.S cruise industry from 2005 to 2006 resulted in expenditures of $35.7 billion in gross output, a 10% increase, which generated 348,000 jobs and paid out $14.7 billion in salaries. It should be noted that accommodation of large cruise ships in ports require a great deal of initial capital investment in infrastructure and maintenance costs, which is absorbed eagerly by the host port, not by the cruise line. It is recommended that to create a more balanced port development the cruise companies should contribute financially towards the local infrastructure costs, and also put a pause on increasing t he size of new ships to allow the existing ports to still welcome new ships without incurring additional rebuild costs. Impact of Powerful Cruise Companies Three main cruise lines, Carnival, Royal Caribbean and Star/NCL control around 35% of cruise vessels, with Carnival controlling 22% of that 35% alone.  [3]  If one adds to it the growth rate of 8% annually, the net result is that the above three cruise companies exert a lot of power globally. Cruise business has become a revenue and profit churning machine and this is often with the exclusion or restriction of local providers. Arguably, cruise lines benefit the most from the activities associated with the passengers both onboard and off-board. There are minimal profits for the providers of local tourism services as cruise lines obtain all income from items sold on board such as souvenirs, rental of aquatic equipment, food and beverages, leaving the local tour operator with little profit. Tourism service providers also have to pay for promotion on board; videos, brochures and booths. A booth can costs up to U.S. $16,500.  [4]  Other income comes from dream islands, cruise line s private island property and once again reducing the economic benefit to impacted communities. The cruise industry also has a strong lobbying group to push for policy and legal decisions in their favor and during the period from1997 to 2007, the Cruise Line International Association spent US$10 million on lobbying the U.S Congress. They try their hardest to avoid or minimize paying local taxes. For example, many of their ships go under the flags of convenience, Liberia, Bahamas and Panama and cross international borders, where they are exempted from paying certain destination taxes and pollution fees, and where it is difficult for the local jurisdictions to enforce these payments. This causes the local hotels to get angry as they are obligated to pay such taxes and it makes them less competitive and profitable than the cruise lines. One suggestion is for a new international standard where cruise ships are obligated to pay a local port tax and economic development contribution based on the size of the ship and number of passengers, payable while in port. Environmental Effects Cruise ships generate a number of waste streams that affect the marine environment, for example, sewage, graywater, hazardous wastes, oily bilge water, ballast water, solid waste and also emits air pollutants to the air and water. These environmental costs are significant but incalculable given that the cruise ship industry is largely unregulated. As an example, blackwater and graywater generate 15,000 to 30,000 gallons per day for a ship with 3,000 passengers, and 24% of vessel solid waste worldwide comes from cruise ships. Unfortunately, the few regulations that are there are not always successful enforced. In 1999 Royal Caribbean paid a fine of US$18million for discharging oily bilge water in Alaska, the same amount was paid by Carnival Cruise Line in 2002 for dumping oily waste from five ships, and still not much has changed. Cruise ships have a positive image of glamour, even though they only represent a small percentage of the entire shipping industry worldwide, and because of this their environmental impacts are tolerated and continue to be unregulated. LeAna B. Gloors article on cruise tourism impact on Hilo in Hawaii  [5]  illustrates the social, physical and environmental concerns. She states that while Hawaii is benefiting economically at unprecedented levels, it is also being impacted negatively on the environmental side of things at unprecedented levels. She advocates for a stronger legislation, more aggressive enforcement and more bills such as the Clean Cruise Ship Act. Social and Cultural Effects Interactions between resident and cruise passengers can have positive effects but at the same time, high frequency and density of cruise activities can restrict the available space for local residents and push them to adopt different moral and cultural standards. There are often negative reactions from the residents triggered by the cruise tourism in small ports, where the ratio of cruise tourists to inhabitants is high, in places such as Aruba, Antigua, Barbuda or Dominica. This leads to local resentment, overcrowding and lack of services such as taxis, beach space and available seats in restaurants on the cruise days, or lack of demand, and no work on the days when cruise ships are not in port. This differs for ports such as Miami, Barcelona and European destinations, where the number of cruise visitors ratio is small compared to other tourists and local residents. Another negative is that ships with flags of convenience have questionable labour and work safety standards and with n o legal minimum wage enforced. Past efforts to have this changed by organizations such as the ITWF have failed. It is recommended that standard minimum wage, work hours and days of rest for cruise ship workers are established and enforced internationally. Health and Diseases A number of recent studies have focused on the health risks and disease directly attributable to cruise ships with their high concentration of people from different countries. One such study  [6]  looked at the risks and diseases caused by contaminated water and it showed that their water supply is very different from the water supplies on land. . The risks of contamination were much higher due to the way it was sourced during loading and also the dispersal on the cruise ship. The authors reviewed 21 documented outbreaks of waterborne diseases from various vessels and it was discovered that the bulk of the outbreaks were on cruise ships. Some other risk factors involved already contaminated water from the port to the ship and contamination in their storage tanks, which could be a result of poor maintenance and lack of disinfectants. The recommendations include the need for hygienic and a better comprehensive system to handling of their water supply from source to consumption. Thi s may be achieved in the future by the adoption of improved Water Safety Plans that cover the overall design of the water storage tanks, better internal operations and regular inspection and maintenance. Another study  [7]  of waterborne diseases on cruise ships concluded that the overall decrease of gastroenteritis over a 10 year period prior to 1986 was directly attributable to the improved enforcement of the Vessel Sanitation Program (VSP) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Another study  [8]  from 2006 involved 43 outbreaks of Norovirus on 13 vessels. It is a known fact that cruise ship holidays create an environment where Norovirus spreads easily, so it was recommended that an active reporting system could function as an early warning sign, but more importantly steps must be taken to implement internationally accepted rules and guidelines for reporting, investigating, and controlling Norovirus and other diseases on cruise ships. A Los Angeles Times headl ine, February 4, 2012 stated: Florida cruise ships riddled with Norovirus. Anyone surprised? Safety and Security After the terrorist attacks on New Yorks World Trade Center, cruise related tourism became one of the safest ways to experience foreign travel. Yet, as P. Tarlow indicates in his rather somber study on cruise risks  [9]  , that cruising is not immune to dangers ranging from virus outbreaks to terrorism to accidents. He lists a number of major disasters, terrorist attacks, robberies and on-board assaults to demonstrate his point. Cruise tourism can as well lead to incidents where the ship can become a trap, as the recent examples of the Costa Concordia grounding and Carnivals ship engine fire and subsequent stranding of passengers for several days at sea. Taxation There are no common standards in the application of port taxes to cruises. Some ports charge levy that is reasonable, some excessive. Some ships pay, some do not. Another unresolved situation is that the cruise lines are continually allowed to operate under the flags of convenience (FAO), usually, Panama, Bahamas and Liberia. This allows them to be exempt from multiple tax responsibilities, it is easier for them to have lenient standards of safety, they undergo few environmental inspections, their operating costs are lower, and they recruit staff without adhering to international regulations. The most obvious is Panama, where the ship pays for each passenger landing in Panama, which further encourages the use the Panama FAO.  [10]  A good recommendation would be to adopt an internationally binding comprehensive policy and standards related to taxes, fees, and as well address key areas of staff, passenger safety, and the ships environmental responsibilities. Only then can we have a more sustainable, controlled development and operations of cruise lines where rules are adhered to rather than avoided. Conclusion There is no question that cruise ships bring money to local businesses and to the operators. However, ensuring the sustainable development of a cruise destination and the environment comes with very high cost which the cruise lines must be a part of. The major players in this highly consolidated cruise industry have to take a more proactive and self- policing measures to ensure a sustainable future for cruise tourism while preserving cruise destinations and cruise waterways. The onus as well needs to be on the port communities, as on one hand, there are some decision makers that pressure for more cruise tourism, but there is frequently no policy at the local government level to control the impacts of such activity. The cruise industry will not be going away anytime soon, so it is more important to improve the situation that is not balanced or sustainable. Ports need the cruise ships as much as the cruise ships need the ports, the waterways need to be maintained in a more sustainable way, the cruise workers need fair employment standards and the local population needs to have a voice in the local planning for the impacts of tourism. With the continued growth of the cruise industry now is the time to create new set of international policies and rules that are binding for all participants. This essay discussed some of the key pros and cons of cruising and offered some recommendations for improvement towards a more balanced, sustainable growth. More research needs to be done, more data needs to be collected, and more engagement from all involved parties is needed. There is much to do. Work Cited Brida, J., Zapata-Aguirre, S. (2008). The impacts of the cruise industry on tourism destinations. Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1298403 Brida, J., Zapata-Aguirre, S. (2009). Cruise tourism: Economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts. nternational Journal of Leisure and Tourism Marketing, 1, Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1332619 Chin, C. (2008). Cruising in the global economy. Retrieved from http://books.google.ca/books?hl=enlr=id=pw3GGaY84akCoi=fndpg=PR9dq=related:JzINeoWcSTMJ:scholar.google.com/ots=29X-WtBHnHsig=ivsupSeYhJmVT5hTOROibMm8EVo Daniels, N., Karpati, A. (2000). Travelers diarrhea at sea: Three outbreaks of waterborne enterotoxigenic escherichia coli on cruise ships. 4, Retrieved from http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/181/4/1491.short Dowling, R. Cruise ship tourism. Retrieved from http://books.google.ca/books?hl=enlr=id=gZ3_28wi_UkCoi=fndpg=PA3dq=cruise Ebersold, W. (2004). Cruise industry in figures. Business Briefing: Global Cruise, Retrieved from http://www.touchbriefings.com/pdf/858/ACF7B5.pdf Florida-Caribbean Cruise Association (2012). Cruise Industry Overview 2012: State of the Cruise Industry. Pembroke Pines, Florida. Gloor, L. (2005). Riding tourisms new wave: Evaluating the cruise industrys impact in hilo . Retrieved from http://hilo.hawaii.edu/academics/hohonu/documents/Vol04x14RidingTourismsNewWave.pdf Roon, R. (2004). A review of outbreaks of waterbourne disease associated with ships. 119, Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497646/pdf/15219801.pdf Tarlow, P. (2012). Cruise risks, threats and dangers: A theory. 1, Retrieved from http://wscholars.com/index.php/ajtr/article/view/107 Verhoef, L., Boxman, I. (2008). Emergence of new norovirus variants on spring cruise ships and prediction of winter epidemics. 14, Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2600213 Wu , B. (2005). The world cruise industry: A profile of the global labour market. Retrieved from http://www.sirc.cf.ac.uk/uploads/publications/WorldCruiseIndustry.pdf

Roll of Thunder, Hear my Cry :: Roll of Thunder Hear My Cry Essays

Roll of Thunder, Hear my Cry An important idea in the novel "Roll of Thunder, Hear my Cry" written by Mildred D Taylor is racism. This idea is important because it tells us how life was in the 1930s for a little black girl who matures with racial conflict around her. "Roll of Thunder, Hear my Cry" is about a young, black girl, Cassie Logan who tries to understand with her family, why the blacks are different to the whites. Cassie, the narrator leads us through all the disaster and trouble that her and her family have been through in relation with the white folks in Mississippi. The first example that shows racial conflict between the blacks and whites is the Jefferson Davis School bus, which is full of white children. Blacks do not have a bus so Cassie and her brothers have to walk to school. However, each morning the children would be threatened by this bus, "a bus bore down on him spewing clouds of red dust like a huge yellow dragon breathing fire". This is surely because of racism. The whites in the bus seem to find it amusing with "laughing with faces" to see the black children run for their lives. Another example is the incident Cassie takes a trip to Strawberry to the market. There she is made to apologize to Lillian Jean Simms (a white girl) for bumping into her. Cassie does not like to get pushed around and she stands up for herself. She says, "I ain't nasty, and if you're so afraid of getting bumped, walk down there yourself" to Lillian Jean after she is told to "get down in the road". This example tells us how the whites can tell the black people to do whatever they want them to do. In return, the black person would do what they are told but Cassie is strong and stubborn, and she refuses until her Big Ma tells her to apologize. Overall, life in the 1930s for the black people was very difficult as they were pressured and pushed around as if they were animals.

Biological Effects Of Radiation :: essays research papers

The Biological Effects of Radiation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Whether the source of radiation is natural or man made, whether it is a small dose of radiation or a large dose, there will be some biological effects. Radiation causes ionizations of atoms, which will affect molecules, which may affect cells, which may affect tissues, and so on. Although most people tend to think of biological effects in terms of the effect of radiation on living cells, in actuality, ionizing radiation, by definition, interacts only with atoms by a process called ionization (Chandra p. 205). Thus, all biological damage effects begin with the consequence of radiation interactions with the atoms forming the cells.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Even though all subsequent biological effects can be traced back to the interaction of radiation with atoms, there are two mechanisms by which radiation ultimately affects cells. These two mechanisms are commonly called direct and indirect effects.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If radiation interacts with the atoms of the DNA molecule, or some other cellular component critical to the survival of the cell, it is referred to as a direct effect. Such interaction may affect the ability of the cell to reproduce and, thus, survive. If enough atoms are affected in such a way that the chromosomes do not replicate properly, or there is a significant alteration in the information carried by the DNA molecule, then the cell may be destroyed by â€Å"direct† interference with its life-sustaining system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Indirect effects are caused by the reaction of radiation with the water that makes up the majority of the cells volume. When radiation interacts with water, it may break the bonds that hold the water molecule together. This produces fragments of hydrogen and hydroxyls. These fragments may recombine or they may interact with other fragments to form compounds, such as water, which would not harm the cell. It is when these fragments combine to form toxic substances, such as hydrogen peroxide, that the destruction of the cell results.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Biological effects of radiation are typically divided into two categories. The first category consists of exposure to â€Å"high doses of radiation over brief intervals of time† producing acute effects (Hall p. 15). The second category represents exposure to â€Å"low doses of radiation over extended periods of time† producing chronic or long term effects (Hall p.15). High doses tend to kill cells, while low doses tend to damage or change them. High doses can kill so many cells that tissues and organs are damaged.

Customer Service in the Transport Logistics

The South African transport industry is one that is changing. In terms of Customer service there are certain companies that are excelling and are able to provide service that gains them a greater measure of customer satisfaction. Good customer service is an integral part of any business or organization. The process of managing stock, warehouse inventory, and freight transportation is at the heart of logistics. Logistics is the management and coordination of moving inventory from its origination to its ultimate destination. The goal of a logistics team is to find a way to do this process in the most streamlined, cost efficient method possible. The overall High costs in the logistics industry though are a cause for concern as they hinder the ability of organisations to provide maximum efficiency, to their customers thus not achieving maximum customer service. We will discuss what customer service is and its importance in the transport industry. We will look at the challenges facing the South African Transport industry as well as current developments going into the world cup and what these developments mean for the future of the South African transport industry. Customer Service is defined by Vogt and Pienaar as â€Å"the integrated series of activities between a supplier and a buyer, which enhance the sale and facilitate the effective use of the suppliers’ products. When rendered effectively, customer service is the overriding logistics supply chain function that can create demand and retain loyalty. In a broader sense customer service is the measure of how well the logistics system is performing in providing time and place utility for a product or service (Pienaar & Vogt; 2009, 25). According to Christopher and Peck (2003) customer service includes points of contact between a supplier and buyer also including tangible and intangible elements. Logistics performance is extremely important in achieving customer satisfaction. Importance of Customer service The importance of customer service in any organisation and the transport industry as a whole cannot be over emphasized. Customer service is the most critical aspect of the whole supply and distribution chain (Ron). According to Karl it has been proven in surveys that most customers do not come back to certain business establishment because of the indifferences they might have had with the owner, manager and employees regardless if they like the product or service the business renders. Every business management must recognize the reality that customer service is imperative in the success of the business. This ensures customer loyalty and commitment to the business. The company’s ability to focus on customers needs rather than on their own will ensure that company is cost effective and efficient at all times. Characteristics of customer service in transportation There are a number of factors that make up customer service and specifically for the transport industry these include, dependability, time in transit, flexibility of mode chosen, loss and damage performance of the mode, and ability of the transport to adapt to the changing customer needs. (Craig, 2004) Most customers are more interested about receiving their delivered goods on time than whether the person delivering the goods has a cheerful face. Successful companies try to under-promise and over deliver in terms of delivery time. This allows the firms to capture their customers ensuring that the company’s reputation is not jeopardized so firms need to ensure that their lead times are accurate. Customer service excellence is about reliability and consistency. Reliability means that the suppliers commitment to maintain a promised delivery schedule and to advise customers if deliveries subsequently cannot be made on time. This shows that the suppliers are reliable and keep the customer at ease. It is better to switch to a more expensive but reliable supplier than to rely on a relatively inexpensive but erratic supplier. Customer satisfaction is highest when a customer knows they can rely on their goods to be delivered at the specified time and that the goods will be delivered. Companies such as Manline offer customers the service of being able to track their goods in transit through a customer call centre where they can monitor their cargo through real time satellite tracking of their vehicles. Such services allow customers to be more at ease. In South Africa overall this is a concern in the transport industry as the rate of hijacking is high and thus the risk of goods not arriving is high. This means that in South Africa it is imperative that an organisation gets the best security technology in order to meet customer needs. The amount of time in-transit is another important element in customer service within the transport industry. Goods need to be transported and delivered as quickly as possible as customers need their cargo on hand as soon as possible. The flexibility of any mode of transport is another important element in customer service. If an organisation is to provide the best service they need to react to a customer’s changing needs. In the South African transport industry it is sometimes difficult for there to be immediate changes in customer requirements as the most used mode of transportation is road transportation. This means that service delivery in any other form is sometimes difficult or unreliable. The idea is to move goods as quickly, efficiently and cost effectively as possible. JIT (Just-In-Time) deliveries are a powerful force in the modern epoch. Deliveries are getting smaller but more frequent. We are moving into a situation where there is a continuous flow of goods from source to final delivery. Those carriers who are able to adapt to the changes in the market and accommodate a wide set of logistical competencies will be the winners in the new age of transport. Traditional haulers must change their ideas of what industry they belong to and face the challenges of the new order. Fast-moving, 2005) Challenges affecting customer service in South Africa Within the last couple of years the country has been able to address some of the issues within the transport industry, though there is still much that needs to be addressed. There have been various challenges that have and still face South Africa’s growing transportation and physical distribution industry. One of those challenges is that with increased globalization the local industry has to compete wi th foreign industry. Customers want the most reliable yet inexpensive way of transporting their goods and foreign companies are doing this, making it difficult for local companies to stay relevant. Another major challenge which has been addressed to an extent by some companies and aspects of the transport industry is that of technology. Customers want to know the exact specifications of the transportation of their goods. They want to know time of departure, time of arrival, amount of time in transit, and even the route of transit. This then means that the best tracking technology is required. In South Africa this high technology has been slow in infiltrating the transport industry. Devices for tracking and monitoring load carriers using real time satellite tracking is not something that is widely used in the industry. A good example of a company that is doing this though is Manline . This Company has set up a 24-hour control centre operated by fleet trackers that constantly monitor all vehicles and also to apply effective route rationalizing techniques and maximize vehicle productivity and utilization. (Manline 2010). According to the findings of the ‘Research Report for the Infrastructure Inputs Sector Strategy’, commissioned by the Presidency, and compiled by Sudeo International Business consultants. One of the other major challenges facing the South African Transportation industry going into 2010 is that freight volumes travelling by all modes of transport will have to be suppressed for the duration of the world cup. This will have considerable impact on the logistics industry as a whole. Ways to improve and Developments in 2010 The challenges that face the South African industry are ones that can be remedied. The 2010 World cup in South Africa has become a catalyst event in developments in the country and the transportation industry as it is one of the most integral parts of achieving efficient customer delivery and thus achieving high customer satisfaction. An important component of ultimate improvement would be making on-time deliveries every time. When a product is ready for use, the clock starts to count down how long it will take to complete the cycle from completing the manufacturing of a product to the consumption of that product. The longer it takes to get the product into the hands of the consumer, the more money a company loses. It is important that the products are delivered quickly and on time to the customers in order to maintain the company’s customers and keep them loyal. So how does one streamline this process? By implementing a logistics plan of action, a company can do just that. Larger manufacturers will hire a logistics team that is responsible for the routing of goods from the company, to the freight transportation company, and finally to the end client. They will have a database system to track all inventory. They will monitor inventory levels to make sure that a backlog of supply occurs. An additional responsibility of transportation and logistics specialist is to account for accurate transportation times. It is vital for companies to be able to rely and trust that their shipments will arrive in a timely manner. Being well organized accounts for much of this success, but the ability to transport the shipments quickly is also important. Because the country's infrastructure has improved with better maintained highways and interstates, transportation times have decreased. Freight transportation is more reliable now because companies can more accurately predict when a shipment will arrive. Some trucking companies will even guarantee the precise day and hour that a delivery will be made. This is very important because customer satisfaction is often based around on-time deliveries and accurate accounting of merchandise. This has also helped to reduce the cost of shipping freight, since trucking companies now have reliable, more direct routes to utilize. It indirectly affects cost because better roads create less wear and tear on shipping vehicles. It is important for the organization to answer all e-mail and phone calls from customers within an hour. If possible, the owner of the business, personally take care of the problem. This will show that the organization cares about customers and will improve the service quality of the organisation. This is an important area of improvement in South Africa as clients would be able to trust load carriers as they would be in constant contact. It will give customers peace of mind if they can continuously monitor their cargo themselves and also stay in contact with their company. The organisation should offer as many contact methods as possible. Allow customers to contact you by e-mail. Hyperlink the e-mail address so customers won't have to type it. Offer toll free numbers for phone and fax contacts. Some trucking companies have contact numbers written on their trucks so that the customers can be able to contact that particular company when they need their service. The organisation should invite customers to company meetings, luncheons, workshops or seminars in the meeting the manager can inform the customers about when the products will be available in the market because it is important to give customers more than they expect. Create special events for the customers like parties, barbecue's, dances etc. This will make them feel important when the company include them in regular business operations and special events (Larry Dotson, 2004) If a logistic team only concentrates on reducing freight cost, they could potentially lower customer service quality. Therefore, the goal of a logistics manager, or third party administrator, is to find a balance between cost and customer satisfaction. They must also be able to provide accurate tracking information, correctly estimate shipping cost, and be able to calculate delivery dates and times. By being organized, keeping cost low for the clients, and by making on time deliveries, freight management can help control the overall customer satisfaction of their clients. Reducing cost in freight transport is great, but if you can improve customer service at the same time, that’s even better. Logistics software can help reduce costs in freight transportation and logistics while improving customer service quality. (Barone, 2003) In the South African industry research shows that there should be plans to shift back to rail-freight and reduce that of road as the overall cost of damage to roads will eventually filter down in costs to the customer. Although currently there are greater cost savings and cost competition in using road freight. Measuring Customer Service. Measuring customer service in logistics for any organization is crucial to determine whether the organization is doing what the customers are expecting. The needs of the customers differ to a large extent and the reason being is not all customers are treated the same. Since the needs of the customers differ to a large extent, organizations end up knowing so little in general about the customers’ real requirements hence they end up setting the service levels that are too high and hence too costly (Ballou, 1978). The high service levels result also in higher distribution costs and therefore the overall price of a product. Even though the aim of any organization is to meet the needs of each and every customer, the organizations should however try to generalize about customer service as much as possible to drive down the costs. The problem that is encountered while trying to measure the customer service is what factors to measure exactly. There has always been a contradiction on whether the service levels should be determined by the customers or be set by the organizations. The firms normally select factors that are easier to measure such as order handling, order picking times whereas customers might be interested or concerned about the order transmittal and delivery which tend to be more difficult to measure. Therefore to determine those factors or aspects that the customers value the most, the organizations normally use the performance model (Murphy and Wood, 2004). The performance model is a questionnaire that the customers fill on receipt of their orders; its main objective is to determine the percentage of times the firm accomplishes specific goals and objectives. Managers normally set some visible goals against which performance can be measured. These come in two forms; standards and policy statements (Ballou, 1978). The managers might for example set a standard whereby the target is to ensure a 95% in-stock rate, filling customer orders within 24 hours of receipt or a one day order cycle time for all customers staying close to the organization. Against these standards managers can be able to tell if they are meeting and exceeding the customer service levels the organization had set. I should be further noted that it is inefficient and costly to provide more service than the customer expect or requires hence the firm should try to meet to break-even. Some companies take customer service seriously in a sense that they even have the written printed statements. The policy statements promise the customers that the company intends to act in a specified way with regard to service. There are five ways in which the organizations measure or test the customer service levels (Gwilliam M, 2008). Firstly, if the organization is able to fill the orders then it must be meeting the customers’ expectations. Normally the acceptable standard is the 95% fill rate whereby it is only 5% of the time when there is stock out. Secondly it is the delivery of the goods on time. It is vital to measure how fast the organization can deliver the products that have been ordered. If most of the time the goods are not delivered at the targeted date then major changes need to be done. Furthermore, it is important to measure how successfully the customers’ concerns can be resolved. Since the customers use the enquiries to express their concerns, the proportion of the number of customer enquiries that have been effectively resolved can be used as a means of measuring customer service given the number of enquiries that have been received. Another way to measure customer service can be how quick the organization responds to the customers’ mails, emails, and phone calls. If the organization is able to respond to the customers within 24 hrs than the level of customer service is up to standard. The last way of measuring the customer service in logistics is by letting the customer decide. The customers can let the organization know if it is fulfilling the needs of its customers. The customer surveys that focus on the customer service issues can be conducted and from the response of the customer surveys the organization can be able to improve on the areas that the customers are not happy with. Once the level of customer service is known it becomes easier to control it. When the level of customer service is below the standard the customers become dissatisfied, however if the level of customer service is above or exceed what the customers require it increases the costs of the organization. Control is therefore defined as a process of taking corrective action when measurement indicates that the goals or objectives of customer service are not being achieved. For example, if the delivery targeted dates are not met there might be a need of changing the mode of transport or simply the route being used. Firstly the service level standards are set, and then the actual is compared to the standard. If there is a variation then the corrective measures need to be done so that the standard is met. At times the reason why the standard is not met is because it was set too high that it cannot be matched, in this case the standard itself needs to be revised. Conclusion â€Å"The success of South Africa’s infrastructure growth challenges will be dependent on the ability of logistics infrastructure and, in particular, transportation, to cope with the demands placed on it. †(Engineering news, 2007). In the future the quality of customer service will be the main determining factor in the survival of a company as customers become more aware of product offerings that will suit them. The transportation industry in South Africa is changing, with greater emphasis being placed on the customer and their level of satisfaction. This will bring a greater move forward in the industry that will see South Africa competing on the world stage in terms of transportation. Customer service is vital to the survival of any company, organisation or industry and establishing and implementing customer service policies that work is what will lead organisations and industries to greater growth and success.